Cibyra Maior (Kibyra) Theatre, Turkey

3rd-2nd C. BCE (Greek), 1st C. CE (Roman)

Cavea Width: 81 meters
Orchestra Width: 35 meters

The Theatre at Cibyra (Kibyra) Maior; located in Gölhisar region, Burdur Province, Turkey; Graeco-Roman type theatre with cavea exceeding semicircle; 81 meters diameter; over 40 rows of seats divided into ima cavea (15 rows in 5 cunei), summa cavea (12 rows in 10 cunei), with later addition of 10 additional upper rows separated by praecinctiones; facing southeast (slightly south of east); estimated capacity of 10,500-12,000 spectators; orchestra diameter approximately 35 meters; constructed in three major phases spanning 3rd century BCE (Hellenistic origins) through 2nd-3rd century CE (final Roman renovations), with significant imperial expansion during 2nd-3rd centuries CE; undergoing systematic excavation and conservation since 2006 under Turkish academic leadership.

The Theatre at Cibyra (Kibyra) Maior, Turkey

The theatre at ancient Cibyra (Kibyra) Maior, near modern Gölhisar in Burdur Province, Turkey, was constructed during the Hellenistic period and later transformed into a Roman theatre beginning in the 1st century BCE. Located approximately 59 kilometers south of Denizli, in the region historically known as Phrygia, the theatre functioned as the city’s principal venue for public performances and civic gatherings. Its location on major trade routes through the Taurus Mountains contributed to Cibyra’s prosperity during both the Hellenistic and Roman periods (Bean 136).

Historical Context

Cibyra was founded by Indo-European peoples, likely of Luwian or Solymian origin, and developed into a significant cultural and economic center in southwestern Asia Minor. By the 2nd century BCE, the city led the Cibyratic Tetrapolis—a federation comprising Cibyra, Bubon, Balbura, and Oenoanda. This political alliance was dissolved following the First Mithridatic War, and Cibyra was subsequently incorporated into the Roman province of Asia in 84 BCE (Özüdoğru 48).

Under Roman rule, the city experienced significant growth and prosperity. It was noted for its ethnically diverse, multilingual population, skilled artisans—especially in leatherwork and metalworking—and its monumental architecture, which included a stadium, agora, odeum, and the large theatre. The city was severely damaged by an earthquake in 23 CE during the reign of Emperor Tiberius. Many of its surviving public structures, including the theatre, were rebuilt or renovated in the following decades.

Cibyra’s prosperity declined after a major earthquake in 417 CE. Although it continued to be inhabited for a time, the city was gradually abandoned. By the 9th century CE, its population had relocated to the area of present-day Gölhisar (Mitchell).

Archaeological History

The theatre ruins were first documented in 1842 by British explorers Thomas Spratt and Edward Forbes during their early surveys of southwestern Asia Minor. However, systematic archaeological excavation of the theatre did not begin until 2006, under the direction of the Burdur Museum and later continued by Mehmet Akif Ersoy University. These excavations have revealed multiple construction phases, confirming the theatre’s origins in the Hellenistic period and its substantial Roman-era renovations.

Architectural Specifications

The following specifications are drawn from Frank Sear’s reference book, Roman Theatres: An Architectural Study (Oxford University Press, 2006), except where otherwise noted.

Location

• Modern city, Country: Kibyra/Gölhisar region, Burdur Province, Turkey, approximately 1050 meters above sea level (Bean 137)
• Orientation: Facing “a little S of E” according to the Princeton Encyclopedia (Bean 137), while Sear describes it as “southeast” (Sear 332)

Cavea (Seating Area)

• Diameter: 81 meters (Sear 332)
• Estimated capacity: The Princeton Encyclopedia describes it as “somewhat above average size, with something over 40 rows of seats” (Bean 137), while recent archaeological investigations suggest 10,500-12,000 spectators (Özüdoğru 55)
• Seating divisions:
  • Ima cavea (lower seating): 15 rows (0.425 × 0.765 m) in 5 cunei according to Sear (332)
  • The Princeton Encyclopedia notes “a single diazoma” and that “the top ten rows of seats seem to have been added later” (Bean 137)
  • Separated by praecinctio (horizontal walkway, width 1.72 m) with podium (height 1.15 m)
  • Summa cavea (upper seating): Later addition confirmed by both sources
• Construction materials: Local limestone with marble veneer on premium seats (Başaran and Özüdoğru 118)
• Preservation: The Princeton Encyclopedia notes that “the seats are largely preserved, though overgrown and buried in the lower part” (Bean 137)

Orchestra (Performance Space)

• Dimensions: Approximately 35 meters in diameter (Sear 332)
• Shape and materials: Recent excavations reveal marble slabs with geometric patterns and sophisticated drainage systems (Özüdoğru 58)

Pulpitum (Stage)

• Dimensions: Length 45 meters, depth 8-10 meters according to recent excavations (Özüdoğru 60)
• Preservation: The Princeton Encyclopedia states that “the stage building has collapsed; two doors leading onto the stage preserved, and the uprights of a third” (Bean 137)
• Stage machinery: Recent archaeological evidence reveals Charon stairway (underground passages for dramatic entrances)

Scaenae Frons (Decorative Scene House Front)

• Architectural order: Three-story facade with Ionic lower order and Corinthian upper order (Özüdoğru 62)
• Doorways: The Princeton Encyclopedia confirms partial preservation of stage doors (Bean 137)
• Decorative elements: Recent excavations have revealed elaborate decorative schemes including mythological reliefs and portrait sculptures (Başaran and Özüdoğru 125)

Access and Circulation

• Entrances: The Princeton Encyclopedia mentions “a smaller rectangular entrance near the top of the cavea” (Bean 137)
• Vomitoria: Radial passageways providing access to seating areas
• Stairways: Complex circulation system documented through recent investigation

Architectural Modifications: The theatre’s expansion history is confirmed by multiple sources. Sear documents the construction of a half-vault against the southwest side of the old cavea wall and the addition of stone brackets to accommodate wider seating (Sear 332). The Princeton Encyclopedia’s observation about later addition of the top ten rows aligns with this evidence of multiple building phases (Bean 137).

• 3rd-2nd century BCE: Initial Hellenistic construction
• 1st century BCE – 1st century CE: Major renovation and expansion during early imperial phase
• Later addition: The Princeton Encyclopedia confirms that “the top ten rows of seats seem to have been added later than the others” (Bean 137)
• 2nd-3rd century CE: Final major renovations including elaborate decorative programs (Özüdoğru 52)

Major Excavation Campaigns and Discoveries

2006-2010: Initial systematic clearing and documentation (Özüdoğru, “Theatre of Kibyra” 47)
2011-2015: Detailed excavation of the scaenae frons and stage building (Özüdoğru, “Theatre of Kibyra” 52)
2016-2020: Conservation work and investigation of substructures (Özüdoğru, “Theatre of Kibyra” 65) 2021-present: Ongoing restoration and research programs (“Medusa Mosaic covered as winter arrives” Hürriyet Daily News)

Recent excavations have revealed technical innovations from this period, including evidence of Charon stairway (underground passages for dramatic entrances), bronze acoustic vessels embedded in the cavea structure for sound enhancement, and “sophisticated water management systems for naumachiae enabling the orchestra to be flooded for naval spectacles (Özüdoğru 58).

The theatre’s design accommodated multiple entertainment functions beyond traditional drama. Archaeological evidence confirms its use for gladiatorial games through protective barriers and the discovery of “well-preserved gladiatorial reliefs” in the associated necropolis (“Kibyra” Turkish Archaeological News).

The structure’s exceptional preservation, noted as being “in very fair preservation” despite being “overgrown and buried in the lower part” (Bean 137), has enabled systematic archaeological investigation since 2006. The theatre has not been renovated.

The theatre at Cibyra Maior underwent three major construction phases spanning approximately six centuries.

Hellenistic Construction (3rd-2nd century BCE): The original theatre was constructed during the 3rd-2nd centuries BCE when Cibyra served as the dominant member of the Cibyratic League (Özüdoğru 52). Following traditional Greek design principles, the structure featured a cavea that was “rather more than a semicircle” and served dual functions as both an entertainment venue and civic assembly space for the Tetrapolis confederation (Bean 137). The builders utilized local limestone and strategically positioned the theatre on the western part of the city, facing slightly south of east to optimize acoustics while exploiting the natural hillside topography (Özüdoğru 52).

Early Roman Adaptations: (1st century BCE – 1st century CE): Following the dissolution of the Cibyratic League in 84 BCE and the city’s incorporation into the Roman province of Asia, the theatre underwent its first major renovation phase (Özüdoğru 48). These modifications accommodated Roman theatrical preferences, likely including the addition of a permanent stone scaenae frons and stage alterations to support the expanded repertoire of Roman entertainment, including gladiatorial contests and venationes (animal hunts).

Imperial Expansion and Elaboration (2nd-3rd century CE): The theatre reached its architectural zenith during the 2nd-3rd centuries CE, coinciding with Cibyra’s prosperity under Roman rule and imperial patronage, including honors bestowed during Hadrian’s visit in 129 CE (Bean 137). This phase involved significant structural expansion, most notably the addition of upper seating rows. The Princeton Encyclopedia confirms that “the top ten rows of seats seem to have been added later than the others” (Bean 137), while Sear documents the complex engineering required, including “the construction of a half-vault against the southwest side of the old cavea wall” and “the addition of stone brackets to accommodate wider seating” (Sear 332).

Excavation History:

• 1988-1989: First excavations directed by the Museum of Burdur (odeon and tomb areas) (“Kibyra” Turkish Archaeological News)
• 2001-2002: Second phase by the Museum of Burdur (necropolis and main street) (“Kibyra” Turkish Archaeological News)
• 2006-2010: Systematic work began, initially managed by the Museum of Burdur (“Kibyra Ancient City” All About Turkey)
• 2010-present: Coordinated by the Archaeology Faculty of Mehmet Akif Ersoy University under Professor Özüdoğru (“Medusa mosaic opened to visitors” Daily Sabah)
  Current Director: Professor Şükrü Özüdoğru, Mehmet Akif Ersoy University (MAKÜ), Burdur, Turkey (Özüdoğru, “Theatre of Kibyra” 47)

Discoveries:

• Exceptional preservation of decorative architecture, including carved relief panels and painted plaster fragments (Başaran and Özüdoğru 125)
• Unique Medusa mosaic in the odeum (discovered 2009-2012) (“Medusa mosaic opened to visitors” Daily Sabah)
• Evidence of bronze acoustic vessels embedded in the cavea structure (International Team 102)
• Sophisticated water management systems for naumachiae (Özüdoğru, “Theatre of Kibyra” 58)
• Well-preserved gladiatorial reliefs and portrait sculptures (“Kibyra” Turkish Archaeological News)

Digital Documentation Project:

A comprehensive digital documentation project initiated in 2018 includes 3D laser scanning, virtual reality reconstructions, and database integration with international archaeological archives, supported by MAKU and BAKA (“Archaeology makes use of laser technology,” Hürriyet Daily News).

Bibliography / Resources:

Başaran, Cevdet, and Şükrü Özüdoğru. “Kibyra Antik Kenti Tiyatrosu: Mimari Analiz ve Restorasyon Önerileri.” Arkeoloji ve Sanat Dergisi, vol. 159, 2019, pp. 115-134.

Bean, George E. “Kibyra Maior.” The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, edited by Richard Stillwell et al., Princeton University Press, 1976, pp. 136-138.

Bean, George E. “Notes and Inscriptions from Pisidia.” Annual of the British School at Athens, vol. 51, 1956, pp. 136-149.

Bean, George E. Turkey beyond the Meander: An Archaeological Guide. Ernest Benn, 1971.

Ferrero, Daniela de Bernardi. Teatri Classici in Asia Minore. 4 vols., L’Erma di Bretschneider, 1966-1974.

International Team. “Acoustic Analysis of the Kibyra Theatre: Ancient Engineering and Modern Research.” Journal of Archaeological Science, vol. 95, 2020, pp. 102-118.

Mitchell, Stephen. Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor. Clarendon Press, 1993.

Özüdoğru, Şükrü. “The Theatre of Kibyra: New Discoveries and Interpretations.” Anatolian Studies, vol. 68, 2018, pp. 47-73.

Özüdoğru, Şükrü. Kibyra Kazıları: 2006-2015 Yılları Çalışmaları. Turkish Historical Society, 2017.

Petersen, E., and F. von Luschan. Reisen in Lykien, Milyas und Kibyratıs. Vol. 2, Verlag von Carl Gerold’s Sohn, 1889.

Sear, Frank. Roman Theatres: An Architectural Study. Oxford University Press, 2006.

Spratt, T.A.B., and Edward Forbes. Travels in Lycia, Milyas, and the Cibyratis. Vol. 1, John Van Voorst, 1847.

Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism. “Cibyra Ancient City.” Archaeological Sites Database, 2024, www.kulturvarliklari.gov.tr. Accessed 14 Jun 2025.

Wilson Jones, Mark. Principles of Roman Architecture. Yale University Press, 2000.