Hieropolis (modern Pamukkale, Turkey)

117 C.E.

Cavea Width: 103 meters
Orchestra Width: 22 meters

The Theatre at Hierapolis; Pamukkale, Turkey; 103 m in diameter; ima cavea with 23 rows in 9 cunei and summa cavea with 27 rows in 10 cunei, separated by a praecinctio approximately 2.65 m wide; facing east-northeast, exceeding semicircle; capacity of 10,050-12,550 spectators; orchestra diameter 21.65 m with a surrounding podium; begun in the late 1st century CE and completed during the Hadrianic period (117-138 CE), with significant rebuilding of the scaenae frons during Septimius Severus’ reign (193-211 CE) and addition of a kolymbethra (flooding mechanism) in 352 CE; well-preserved cavea and scene building with substantial decorative elements still intact, including relief sculptures on the podia depicting mythological scenes with over 100 figures including a cycle of Apollo and Artemis (Sear 338-339).

Hierapolis Roman Theatre (modern Pamukkale, Turkey)

Historical Context

The ancient city of Hierapolis is located on a 200-meter-high limestone terrace overlooking the modern town of Pamukkale in Turkey’s Inner Aegean region. The city was founded in the 2nd century BCE by Eumenes II of Pergamon as a thermal spa city centered on the remarkable hot springs that flow from the adjacent hillside (UNESCO). The city quickly established itself not only as an urban center but particularly as a renowned healing destination. The name Hierapolis, meaning “Holy City,” likely referred to the sacred nature of its thermal waters and their perceived healing powers (Wikipedia).

Under Roman rule, which began in 133 BCE when Attalus III bequeathed his kingdom to Rome, Hierapolis flourished as one of the most important health centers in the ancient world. The city reached its peak during the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, when it became a renowned destination for medical treatment (Daily Sabah). The hot springs, with water temperatures ranging from 36-57°C and rich in minerals including calcium, magnesium, and bicarbonate, were believed to cure various ailments from rheumatism to cardiovascular issues (Wikipedia).

The Theatre of Hierapolis was constructed during the late 1st century CE, with completion occurring during the Hadrianic period (117-138 CE) as evidenced by inscriptions mentioning Tiberius Julius Myndius found in the gallery of the summa cavea (upper seating section) (Sear 339). Historical evidence indicates the theatre was specifically built in 129 CE for a visit by Emperor Hadrian himself (Wikipedia), highlighting the city’s importance within the empire.

Unlike other Roman theatrical venues that primarily served entertainment purposes, the theatre at Hierapolis likely played a significant role in the city’s identity as a healing sanctuary. Similar to other ancient health centers like Asklepion at Pergamon, Hierapolis may have incorporated theatrical performances as part of its holistic healing practices, where entertainment and emotional catharsis were considered important components of medical treatment (Academia.edu).

The city and its theatre underwent significant renovations during the Severan period (193-235 CE) when the scaenae frons was rebuilt and extensively decorated with reliefs depicting the imperial family. Further modifications occurred in 352 CE during the reign of Constantius II, as documented in inscriptions found on the architrave of the second order (Sear 339). These renovations included the addition of the kolymbethra (flooding mechanism) that allowed the orchestra to be used for aquatic performances, reflecting the continuing importance of water in the city’s cultural and therapeutic traditions.

Following the official adoption of Christianity in the 4th century, Hierapolis became an important religious center due to its association with Philip the Apostle, who was martyred there in 80 CE. The continued use of the theatre and thermal facilities through the Byzantine period demonstrates the enduring importance of the site as both a cultural and healing center well into late antiquity, before earthquakes in the 7th century led to the city’s eventual abandonment (World Heritage Site).

Architectural Specifications

The following specifications are drawn from Frank Sear’s reference book, Roman Theatres: An Architectural Study (Oxford University Press, 2006), except where otherwise noted.

Location

GPS: 37.9273, 29.12943. The theatre is oriented facing east-northeast, following typical Roman practice that protected audiences from the afternoon sun. It is built into a natural slope, with additional substructures supporting sections that extend beyond the hillside.

Cavea (seating area)

The cavea has a diameter of 103 meters and extends beyond a semicircle, following the Roman Imperial model rather than the earlier Greek semicircular plan (Sear 338). It is divided into two main verticle sections: the ima cavea (lower section) and the summa cavea (upper section), separated by a praecinctio (horizontal walkway) approximately 2.65 meters wide with a podium wall.

The ima cavea features 23 rows of profiled marble seats with a thick fascia (horizontal band) at the front that terminates in decorative lion’s feet beside the staircases. This section is divided into 9 cunei (wedge-shaped sections) by radial staircases. A semicircular pulvinar (special seating box, likely for dignitaries) is located near the bottom of the middle cuneus. Some limestone seats from the older theatre were reused in this section.

The summa cavea contains 27 rows arranged in 10 cunei. The total seating capacity is estimated between 10,050 and 12,550 spectators (Sear 338), making it one of the larger theatrical venues in Asia Minor.

Substructures

Two vaulted radial passageways run under the summa cavea, entering at each side of the theatre and opening onto the praecinctio. These are connected by passageways in the analemmata (retaining walls). The northern side features additional openings in the outer cavea wall leading to oblique or blind passageways, creating a complex circulation system (Sear 338).

Orchestra (performance space between audience and stage)

The orchestra has a diameter of 21.65 meters and is surrounded by a podium. A notable feature is the kolymbethra, a system that allowed the orchestra to be flooded for aquatic displays by closing the proscaenium doors. This unusual feature was added during renovations in 352 CE (Sear 339), reflecting the changing nature of theatrical entertainment in the Late Imperial period.

Pulpitum (stage)

The stage measures 40 meters in length and varies between 7.6 and 9.65 meters in width. It extends fully to the analemmata (retaining walls), leaving no room for traditional parodoi (side entrances to the orchestra). The stage is fronted by a proscaenium 3.25 meters high with three doorways flanked by Composite colonnettes supporting a projecting entablature. Between these doorways are pairs of shell-headed niches lined with marble slabs and separated by single Corinthian colonnettes supporting short projecting entablatures (Sear 338).

Scaenae Frons (decorative scene house front)

The scaenae frons is rectilinear with five doorways, the central three enclosed in curving podia. The structure featured a two-story columnatio (columnar arrangement). Archaeological evidence includes fragments of polychrome glass mosaic that may have decorated the back wall of the upper order. Later structural interventions included large columns installed to buttress the scaenae frons, which had been weakened by pressure from the vaulting of the postscaenium (area behind the stage building). Despite these efforts, evidence suggests the scene building eventually collapsed (Sear 338).

Ornamentation

The theatre is renowned for its exceptionally rich decorative program. The scene building featured elaborate reliefs, many of which were reused during the Severan rebuilding. The proscaenium entablature displays deeply drilled acanthus scrolls in the frieze. The podia of the columnatio were decorated with an uninterrupted sequence of reliefs containing over 100 figures, possibly depicting a cycle of Apollo and Artemis (Sear 338).

Though the columns of the lowest order are broken, their entablatures remain substantially complete. The sequence was restored following inscriptions in the architrave. The podia of the middle order display a sacrificial scene featuring members of the imperial family, including Septimius Severus seated as Jupiter in the central position. The podia of the upper order showcase Dionysiac scenes, appropriate to the theatrical context (Sear 338).

Imagines clipeatae (portrait medallions) of Attalus and Eumenes, founders of the city, were placed at the sides of the scaenae frons (Sear 338), connecting the theatrical space to the city’s founding mythology.

Access and Circulation

The theatre’s access system is sophisticated, with the two main vaulted passageways providing entry to the praecinctio between the ima and summa cavea. Additional access points on the northern side allowed for efficient movement of large crowds. The radial staircases dividing the cunei facilitated vertical circulation within the cavea, while the absence of traditional parodoi suggests that movement between the orchestra and the exterior was managed through the substructure system.

Current Status

The theatre of Hierapolis is remarkably well-preserved, with the cavea and substantial portions of the scene building still standing. It represents one of the best-preserved ancient theatres in Turkey and is a major attraction within the Hierapolis-Pamukkale UNESCO World Heritage Site, designated in 1988.

Conservation efforts have focused on structural stabilization, particularly of the cavea and remaining elements of the scaenae frons. Some anastylosis (reconstruction using original elements) has been undertaken to provide visitors with a better understanding of the original appearance of key features.

The theatre occasionally hosts cultural performances during summer festivals, though with restricted audience numbers to protect the ancient structure. Recent management plans have focused on balancing tourism access with conservation needs, implementing controlled pathways and viewing platforms to minimize impact on the archaeological remains.

Renovation History

1. Initial construction in the late 1st century CE, completed during the Hadrianic period (117-138 CE) as evidenced by the inscription mentioning Tiberius Julius Myndius (Sear 339). Historical research indicates the theatre was built in 129 CE specifically for a visit by Emperor Hadrian (Wikipedia).
2. Significant rebuilding of the scaenae frons during the reign of Septimius Severus (193-211 CE), which included extensive redecoration and the installation of reliefs depicting the imperial family (Sear 339). This renovation involved replacing the original scaenae frons with a more monumental one organized on three storeys and flanked by two side entry buildings, while the auditorium was rebuilt with marble seats replacing the earlier limestone ones (Travellino.net).
3. Major structural interventions in 352 CE, documented by a lengthy inscription on the architrave of the second order. These works focused on preventing the collapse of the scene building and included the addition of the kolymbethra (flooding mechanism) for aquatic displays (Sear 339). This renovation specifically allowed the orchestra to be modified for aquatic performances by making it watertight (Ancient Theatre Archive).
4. Further restorations during the reign of Constantius II (337-361 CE), mentioned in another inscription (Sear 339).
5. A final ancient repair in 532 CE, when the scaenae, weakened by seismic activity, was reinforced (Ancient Theatre Archive). Archaeological evidence indicates the theatre remained in use through the 5th and into the 6th century CE before being abandoned after a devastating 7th century earthquake caused the collapse of the entire building (Travellino.net).

Modern restoration efforts began in 1957 with the establishment of the Italian Archaeological Mission. Major renovation work on the theatre commenced in 1977, focusing on restoring the arches and portions of the stage floor that had been in ruins (Ancient Theatre Archive). Between 2004 and 2014, the theatre underwent significant restoration under a project directed by Francesco D’Andria of the University of Salento, with participation from architectural historians from Politecnico di Torino (Travellino.net). This project included careful archaeological study, architectural analysis of fragments, and conservation work aimed at both preserving the monument and making it accessible to visitors.

Archaeological Research

Early Exploration Phase (18th-19th centuries)

1. Initial documentation by European travelers 1. Richard Chandler’s exploratory visits in the 18th century (Sear 339) 2. Documentation work by Trémaux in the 19th century (Sear 339)
2. First systematic archaeological documentation 1. German archaeologist Carl Humann’s excavations in the late 19th century 2. Publication of “Altertumer Von Hierapolis” in 1889 3. Humann’s later fame for discovering the Pergamon Altar (Wikipedia)

Italian Archaeological Mission Establishment (1957-1986)

1. Formal agreement between Italian and Turkish governments in 1957 1. Creation of the Italian Archaeological Mission at Hierapolis 2. Initial leadership by Paolo Verzone from Turin’s Polytechnic (Wikipedia)
2. Focus areas under Verzone’s direction 1. Documentation of major monuments including the theatre 2. Initial excavation of the Martyrion of St. Philip 3. Publication of findings in the multi-volume “Hierapolis di Frigia” series

De Bernardi Ferrero Period (1986-2000)

1. Leadership transition after Verzone’s death in 1986 1. Direction assumed by Daria De Bernardi Ferrero, Verzone’s former student
2. Major projects during this period 1. Development of a general site plan for Hierapolis 2. Excavation and restoration of the theatre 3. Work on the main plateia (Frontinus Street) and Frontinus gate

D’Andria Era (2000-2017)

1. Leadership by Francesco D’Andria of the University of Salento 1. Expanded research beyond major monuments 2. Significant new discoveries including Philip the Apostle’s tomb in 2011
2. Specialized theatre research program (2004-2014) 1. Comprehensive architectural study of the theatre 2. Collaboration with architectural historians from Politecnico di Torino 3. Integration of experts in 3D modeling from IBAM-Lecce (Academia.edu)
3. Major publications during this period 1. “Hierapolis: Scavi e ricerche, 2: Le sculture del teatro: I rilievi con i cicli di Apollo e Artemide” (1985) by D’Andria and Ritti (Sear 339) 2. “Restoration and Management of Ancient Theatres in Turkey” (2012) edited by Masino and Sobrà

Recent Investigations (2017-Present)

1. Current leadership by Grazia Semeraro, Professor of Classical Archaeology at the University of Salento
2. Multiple institutions have been involved in the excavations, with each having “their own defined project, each with their own funding.” The University of Oslo joined the excavations in 2007 at the invitation of Professor Francesco D’Andria, who directed the Italian Archaeological Mission at Hierapolis. In total, 10 Italian and 4 international universities and research institutions have participated in various aspects of the research.

Bibliography / Resources:

Essential Books and Publications

Arthur, Paul. Byzantine and Turkish Hierapolis, an archaeological guide. Istanbul: Ege Yayinlari, 2006.

D’Andria, Francesco. Hierapolis of Phrygia (Pamukkale), An Archaeological Guide. Istanbul, 2003.

D’Andria, Francesco, and Tullia Ritti. Hierapolis: Scavi e ricerche, 2: Le sculture del teatro: I rilievi con i cicli di Apollo e Artemide. Archeologica 54. Rome: Giorgio Bretschneider, 1985.

De Bernardi Ferrero, Daria. Teatri classici in Asia Minore, vol. 1. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider, 1966.

Humann, Carl, et al. Die Altertümer von Hierapolis. Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Ergänzungsheft 4. Berlin, 1898.

Masino, Filippo and Giorgio Sobrà, eds. Restoration and Management of Ancient Theatres in Turkey. Lecce, 2012.

Sear, Frank. Roman Theatres: An Architectural Study. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Web Resources

“Hierapolis.” Turkish Archaeological News, 5 Nov. 2023, turkisharchaeonews.net/site/hierapolis.

UNESCO World Heritage Centre. “Hierapolis-Pamukkale.” https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/485/