Iguvium (modern Gubbio, Italy)

40 BCE

Cavea Width: 66 meters
Orchestra Width: 18 meters

The Roman Theatre at Iguvium (modern Gubbio, Italy); 70.37m cavea width; 18 rows in ima cavea at 25.5° in 4 cunei, separated by praecinctio from summa cavea with 10 rows at 28.6° in 8 cunei; northeast orientation; capacity 3,900-4,800; 17.97m orchestra diameter; built mid-first century BCE, completed c.20 BCE by Cnaeus Satrius Rufus as documented by inscriptions (CIL XI 5820); features two-story façade with limestone arcades comprising 27 radial barrel vaults, ground level in opus reticulatum with upper level originally featuring Doric colonnade; scaenae frons had central curved regia (10.57m wide) and two rectangular hospitalia with doors, rising approximately 12.14m in two-story columnatio; currently well-preserved with intact cavea and lowest courses of scene building, housed in archaeological park where performances continue today (Sear 160-161).

Iguvium Roman Theatre, Modern Gubbio, Italy.
Iguvium Theatre: An Architectural Analysis

The Roman theatre at Iguvium, located in modern-day Gubbio in the Umbria region of central Italy, is a well-preserved Roman theatre from the late Republican and early Imperial periods (?40 BCE). The northeastern-facing theatre is situated on the western side of the ancient town and was strategically positioned within what scholars believe was likely a residential area of Roman Iguvium (Sear 160). The structure forms part of the archaeological area known as Guastuglia, which extends across approximately 25 acres below the historic center of modern Gubbio.

Archaeological excavations in the surrounding area have revealed a series of chambers with opus signinum pavements and walls of opus caementicium faced with small limestone blocks in opus vittatum, suggesting an integrated complex of support structures that would have served theatergoers (Iguvium Archaeological Site). These findings indicate that the theatre formed part of a larger urban development that included public buildings, residential structures, and possibly commercial establishments.

Historical Context

The Iguvium Theatre was constructed during the late Republican period, with the main structure dating to the mid-first century BCE (?40 BCE). This timing coincides with a period of significant Roman architectural development, following Pompey’s introduction of the first permanent stone theatre in Rome in 55 BCE. The Iguvium Theatre thus represents an early example of permanent theatrical architecture in Roman Italy, reflecting the increasing acceptance of Greek-style entertainment within Roman cultural life and the formalization of theatrical spaces.

Epigraphic evidence provides precise information about the completion of the theatre. According to inscriptions now displayed in the Museo Civico (formerly Palazzo dei Consoli), the building was finished around 20 BCE by the local magistrate Cnaeus Satrius Rufus, a quattuorvir iure dicundo (one of four officials with judicial power). Two identical inscriptions (CIL XI 5820), one discovered in the 16th century and the other in 1863, record that Rufus personally financed the roofing and paving of the basilicae (rectangular halls flanking the stage building), along with providing new skirting-boards (Iguvium Archaeological Site). This act of euergetism (public benefaction) was part of a larger pattern of civic contributions by Rufus, who also donated substantial sums for various public purposes, including HS 6,000 upon his election as decurion, HS 3,450 for military provisions, HS 6,200 for the restoration of Diana’s temple, and notably, HS 7,750 for “games in honor of the victory of Augustus” (Iguvium Archaeological Site).

This last element is particularly significant as it places the completion of the theatre within the context of Augustan political propaganda, suggesting that the venue served not only for entertainment but also as a space for reinforcing imperial ideology and celebrating Roman military achievements. The reference to Augustus’s victory likely refers to his triumph over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at Actium in 31 BCE, placing the theatre’s completion firmly within the early Augustan period.

Archaeological evidence indicates that the theatre remained in continuous use until the late fourth century CE, as attested by a concentration of Late Imperial coins found in a burnt layer, likely marking the abandonment of the settlement (Iguvium Archaeological Site). The city was finally destroyed in 552 CE by the Ostrogothic king Totila during the Gothic War, after which the urban center was relocated higher up Monte Ingino, where modern Gubbio stands today.

Architectural Specifications

The following specifications are drawn from Frank Sear’s reference book, Roman Theatres: An Architectural Study (Oxford University Press, 2006), except where otherwise noted.

Location

The Iguvium Theatre is situated on the western side of the ancient town, in what was likely a residential area during the Roman period (Sear 160). The theatre faces northeast, aligning with Vitruvian principles that recommend this orientation to protect spectators from the afternoon sun. The structure takes advantage of the natural slope of the terrain, though substantial artificial substructures were still required to achieve the desired cavea profile. (GPS coordinates: 43.35188, 12.57254)

Cavea (seating area)

The cavea of the Iguvium Theatre has a diameter of 70.37 meters and an estimated capacity of between 3,900 and 4,800 spectators according to Sear’s calculations (Sear 160). This estimate differs somewhat from the 6,000 spectator capacity mentioned in the archaeological site signage, highlighting the ongoing scholarly debate regarding ancient theatre capacities.

The seating was divided horizontally into two main sections (maeniana) separated by a broad corridor known as the praecinctio. The lower section (ima cavea) consisted of 18 rows of seats measuring 0.335 meters in height and 0.716 meters in depth, sloping at an angle of 25.5 degrees. These seats were arranged in four wedge-shaped sections (cunei). The upper section (summa cavea) featured approximately 10 rows of seats measuring 0.34 meters in height and 0.62 meters in depth, with a slightly steeper slope of 28.6 degrees, divided into approximately eight cunei (Sear 160).

The seats were constructed of white limestone, providing both durability and aesthetic appeal. This material choice was typical of high-status Roman public buildings and would have created a visually striking contrast with other architectural elements.

Substructures and Support

The entire cavea was supported by an elaborate system of substructures consisting of two stories of 27 radial barrel vaults constructed in opus reticulatum (a Roman building technique using small, pyramid-shaped stones set in a diagonal pattern). These vaults included the aditus maximi (main entrances to the orchestra). The radial vaults were divided into two sections by a curved wall 0.95 meters thick, which supported the praecinctio above (Sear 160).

Five of the vaults contained staircases leading up to the praecinctio level, with additional staircases presumably providing access to the summa cavea, though these are less well preserved. This sophisticated system of substructures demonstrates the Roman mastery of concrete construction techniques, allowing for complex architectural forms that could accommodate large crowds safely and efficiently.

The façade of the theatre featured two stories of arched openings constructed of cut limestone blocks. The openings measured approximately 2.40 meters in width and 4.76 meters in height on the lower level, with slightly shorter openings of 4.5 meters on the upper level. Each bay, including piers and entablature, measured 4.16 meters in width and 6.4 meters in height on the lower level, with the upper level standing 6.1 meters tall (Sear 161).

Orchestra (performance space)

The orchestra, the semicircular space between the cavea and the stage, measured 17.97 meters in diameter. It was surrounded by a paved passageway 1.05 meters wide, which featured small fixing holes around its middle section, possibly for temporary seating or barriers. A drain 0.35 meters wide and 0.73 meters deep ran at an oblique angle under the central niche of the proscaenium and hyposcaenium, facilitating drainage during inclement weather (Sear 161).

The floor of the orchestra was paved with white limestone, creating a unified aesthetic with the seating area. According to the archaeological site documentation, the orchestra was separated from the stage by a low wall, behind which were located the cabins for handling the stage curtain (aulaeum) (Iguvium Archaeological Site).

Pulpitum (stage)

The stage (pulpitum) measured 36.75 meters in length and between 6.46 and 7.18 meters in width (8.18 meters including the proscaenium wall). The front of the stage (proscaenium) was 1 meter wide and 1.40 meters high, constructed of brick and featuring two curved and three rectangular niches, along with two staircases providing access from the orchestra level (Sear 161).

The curtain mechanism (aulaeum) consisted of two parallel rows of six mast holes, each measuring 0.36 by 0.31 meters (Sear 161). This system would have allowed the curtain to be lowered into a slot at the beginning of performances (unlike modern theatres where curtains rise) and raised at the conclusion.

Scaenae Frons (decorative front of stage house)

The scaenae frons featured a central curved niche (regia) 10.57 meters wide with a door 2.50 meters wide. On either side were two shallow rectangular niches (hospitalia) measuring approximately 7.67 by 1.84 meters, each with a door approximately 1.95 meters wide (Sear 161).

The columnatio (columned façade) of the scaenae frons rose to an impressive height of approximately 12.14 meters and was arranged in two stories in the Corinthian order. According to the archaeological site signage, the lower level featured Ionic columns while the upper level featured Corinthian columns, though Sear records both levels as Corinthian. This discrepancy reflects the challenges of architectural reconstruction based on fragmentary evidence.

The scaenae frons was richly decorated with colored marble and numerous architectural elements, fragments of which have been recovered and are now housed in the Palazzo dei Consoli museum. The site signage indicates that each niche was adorned with polychrome marbles and frescoes, highlighting the sumptuous decorative program that would have served as a backdrop for performances (Iguvium Archaeological Site).

Basilicae and Postscaenium

Flanking the stage building were two rectangular halls known as basilicae, each measuring 15 meters in length and 11.82 meters in width, with doors leading to the stage approximately 2.60 meters wide (Sear 161). These spaces would have served as gathering areas for performers and potentially as reception spaces for distinguished guests.

Behind the stage was a single room known as the postscaenium, measuring 3.90 meters in width (Sear 161). This area would have functioned as a backstage space for performers and for storing props and equipment.

Ornamentation and Decorative Program

Archaeological excavations have recovered numerous fragments of the theatre’s decorative program, including a life-size female head possibly representing a Muse, carved in the Hellenistic tradition, along with fragments of an arm, a man’s foot, and part of a female bust carved in relief (Sear 161). These sculptural elements would have enhanced the architectural splendor of the theatre and reinforced its cultural significance.

The archaeological site signage mentions an emblem depicting a fight scene between a lion and a leopard, which was likely part of an opus vermiculatum (fine mosaic work) polychrome mosaic from the theatre area. This mosaic, discovered in the 16th century during excavations by Count Gabriele De Gabrielli, is now housed at Holkham Hall in Norfolk, England, illustrating the dispersal of ancient artifacts during the Renaissance and modern periods (Iguvium Archaeological Site).

Current Status

The Iguvium Theatre remains well-preserved, with the cavea and the lowest courses of the scene building still intact. The structure is currently managed as an archaeological park, with the fornices (vaulted spaces) beneath the cavea enhanced and arranged to house a permanent exhibition of archaeological finds from the theatre (Iguvium Archaeological Site).

Today, the site is accessible to visitors through the Antiquarium, housed in a medieval building on Via del Teatro Romano, which also displays mosaics and other artifacts discovered during excavations beneath the structure.

Renovation History

The Iguvium Theatre has undergone multiple phases of construction, renovation, abandonment, and restoration throughout its history. The main structure dates to the mid-first century BCE, with the completion of the basilicae around 20 BCE under the patronage of Cnaeus Satrius Rufus, as documented in epigraphic evidence (CIL XI 5820).

An inscription dated to 5 CE (CIL XI 5817) associated with a statue of Tiberius suggests continued imperial interest in the theatre during the Julio-Claudian period, potentially indicating further embellishments or renovations during this time (Sear 161).

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the theatre underwent significant changes in function. During the Byzantine period (6th century CE), the structure was reportedly transformed into a defensive fortification known variously as Palatium, Parilasio/Perolasio, or Rocca (Umbria Tourism). Excavations conducted at the end of the 18th century revealed evidence of this reuse, including remains of masonry and wooden structures, traces of fire, and human remains within the theatre. The art historian Sebastiano Ranghiasci Brancaleoni interpreted these findings as confirmation of the building’s transformation into a fortress that was ultimately destroyed in 772 CE during the Lombard king Desiderio’s conquest of Gubbio (Umbria Tourism).

In the 13th century, a monastery dedicated to Mary, called “of Pallagio,” was constructed on the ruins of the theatre and remained in place until the 16th century. Later, Pope Leo X ordered the transfer of the religious establishment and planned to build a second fortress on the site, but the project was never completed due to financial difficulties and the pontiff’s death (Umbria Tourism).

The archaeological site signage indicates that the theatre has been known since the 15th century, suggesting that it remained at least partially visible throughout the medieval and Renaissance periods, unlike many ancient structures that were completely buried (Iguvium Archaeological Site). The first documented archaeological excavations in the area date to 1562, carried out by Count Gabriele De Gabrielli (Secret Umbria).

Sebastiano Ranghiasci, a noted archaeologist who was granted permission by Pope Pius VI to excavate the theatre, conducted significant investigations at the site toward the end of the 18th century (ca. 1789) (Key to Umbria). These early excavations established the importance of the structure and led to increased scholarly interest in Roman Iguvium.

The theatre underwent its final major restoration in 1900, conducted by G. Sacconi and D. Viviani, who removed modern houses that had been built against the theatre’s walls, revealing the original Roman structure (Iguvium Archaeological Site). One farmhouse built directly against the cavea was demolished during this campaign (Secret Umbria). These extensive restoration efforts in the late 19th and early 20th centuries have preserved the structure and enabled its continued use for performances today.

Archaeological Research

Archaeological investigation of the Iguvium Theatre has a long history dating back to at least the early 16th century. The first documented excavations were carried out in 1562 by Count Gabriele De Gabrielli, who unearthed numerous artifacts, including the famous mosaic depicting a lion attacking a leopard that is now in England (Secret Umbria).

Scholarly interest in the structure grew in the late 18th century, when Sebastiano Ranghiasci, permitted by Pope Pius VI to excavate the site, conducted significant investigations around 1789 (Key to Umbria). Ranghiasci established an important archaeological collection and published studies on his findings, contributing to the growing field of classical archaeology (Key to Umbria).

1. Ranghiasci’s 1801 publication “Dell’antico teatro iguviano” represents one of the earliest scholarly studies of the structure (Sear 161). The theatre also appears in F. Wieseler’s important 1851 compilation of ancient theatrical buildings, “Theatergebäude und Denkmäler des Bühnenwesens bei den Griechen und Römern” (Sear 161).
2. Brunn conducted investigations of the site in 1863, published in the Bullettino dell’Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica (Sear 161). It was during these excavations that the second of the two identical inscriptions recording Cnaeus Satrius Rufus’s benefactions was discovered, providing important confirmation of the theatre’s early Augustan date (Key to Umbria).
3. Ashby studied the theatre’s mosaic in 1914, publishing his findings in the Papers of the British School at Rome (Sear 161). U. Tarchi documented the theatre in his 1936 work on Etruscan-Roman art in Umbria and Sabina, providing valuable photographic documentation (Sear 161).
4. Moschella published research on the theatre in the journal Dioniso in 1939, focusing on its relationship to theatrical traditions (Sear 161), while G. Annibaldi’s work was noted in Fasti Archaeologici in 1953, suggesting continued scholarly interest in the mid-20th century (Sear 161).

More recent investigation includes B. Cenni’s 1973 study of Roman construction techniques at the theatre (Sear 161), H. von Hesburg’s 1980 analysis of architectural elements (Sear 161), and M. Gaggiotti’s contributions to the comprehensive 1984 volume “Umbria” concerning the archaeological findings at Iguvium (Sear 161).

Frank Sear conducted research at the site, with his findings incorporated into his comprehensive 2006 reference work on Roman theatres (Sear 161). Recent archaeological campaigns have focused on the chambers in front of the theatre, which have yielded materials dating from the Pre-Roman Age through the Late Imperial period, providing valuable information about the theatre’s chronology and its relationship to the surrounding urban fabric (Iguvium Archaeological Site).

Bibliography / Resources:

Bibliography

Cenni, B. Tecniche costruttive romane: Teatro romano di Gubbio. Città di Castello, 1973.

Iguvium Archaeological Site in Gubbio, Italy. Signage text. 2015.

Key to Umbria. “Roman Theatre and ‘Percorso Archeologico’.” www.keytoumbria.com/Gubbio/Roman_Theatre_and_Percorso.html.

Key to Umbria. “Palazzo Ranghiasci-Brancaleoni.” www.keytoumbria.com/Gubbio/Palazzo_Ranghiasci-Brancaleoni.html.

Moschella, P. “Il teatro romano di Gubbio.” Dioniso, vol. 7, 1939, pp. 3-16.

Ranghiasci, S. Dell’antico teatro iguviano. Perugia, 1801.

Secret Umbria. “The Roman Theater in Gubbio.” www.secretumbria.it/en/the-roman-theater-in-gubbio/.

Sear, Frank. Roman Theatres: An Architectural Study. Oxford University Press, 2006.

Umbria Tourism. “Roman Theatre of Gubbio.” www.umbriatourism.it/en/-/teatro-romano-gubbio.

von Hesburg, H. Konsolengeisa des Hellenismus und der frühen Kaiserzeit. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Römische Abteilung, Ergänzungsheft 24. Mainz, 1980.

Wieseler, F. Theatergebäude und Denkmäler des Bühnenwesens bei den Griechen und Römern. Göttingen, 1851.