Pergamon (modern Bergama)

Last quarter of the 3rd century BCE.

Cavea Width: 80 meters
Orchestra Width: 21 meters

The Pergamum Theatre; Bergama, Turkey; Hellenistic theatre with Roman modifications; approximately 80 meters in diameter; 78 rows divided into ima cavea (21 rows in 7 cunei), media cavea (32 rows in 6 cunei), and summa cavea (25 rows in 6 irregular cunei); faces west with panoramic views over the Caicus valley; capacity of 10,000 spectators; orchestra diameter of 21 meters; constructed in the late 3rd century BCE during the reign of King Eumenes II with later 2nd century BCE marble renovations and Roman-era modifications; remarkably well-preserved with intact cavea and visible post-holes for the wooden scene building; recognized as the steepest ancient theatre (angle of approximately 70 degrees) with a 36-meter rise from orchestra to upper seating and a unique dismountable wooden stage; designated as UNESCO World Heritage as part of “Pergamon and its Multi-Layered Cultural Landscape” in 2014.

The Acropolis Theatre at Pergamon, Turkey:

The ancient theatre at Pergamum (modern Bergama, Turkey) stands as one of the most dramatic and impressive theatrical structures of the Hellenistic world. Perched dramatically on the steep western slope of the acropolis hill, the theatre commands a magnificent view over the Caicus plain (modern Bakırçay) below (Sear 346). This remarkable monument represents a brilliant engineering solution for creating a massive civic entertainment venue within the challenging topography of Pergamum’s hillside city plan. The theatre, which serves as the centerpiece of the ancient city’s acropolis, is located just north of the modern town of Bergama on Turkey’s northern Aegean coast (“Architecture in the Ancient World”).

Brief History of the City

Pergamum was a significant settlement from at least the 5th century BCE, but it rose to prominence during the Hellenistic period when it became the capital of the Attalid Kingdom (281-133 BCE). Under the patronage of the Attalid kings, particularly Eumenes II (197-159 BCE), the city developed into one of the most important cultural and intellectual centers of the ancient Greek world (Sear 346).

The city’s strategic location on a steep hill 335 meters above sea level provided natural defenses and commanding views of the surrounding territory. Under Attalid rule, Pergamum became renowned for its library (second only to Alexandria), advances in medicine, architectural innovations, and artistic achievements. The Attalids founded “one of the largest libraries in Pergamon, and the rivalry between three Hellenistic dynasties caused the Attalid Dynasty to create the famous sculpture school” (UNESCO). After the Attalids bequeathed their kingdom to Rome in 133 BCE, Pergamum continued to flourish as the capital of the Roman province of Asia.

Brief History of the Theatre

The theatre at Pergamum was constructed in the late 3rd century BCE during the early Attalid period. Archaeological evidence, including post-holes for the earliest wooden stage structures, confirms this dating (Sear 347). According to research, there was an earlier theatre built at the same location, with some wall remains still visible today (“Architecture in the Ancient World”). The existing structure is thought to have been built during the reign of King Eumenes II (197-159 BCE), with later additions made during the Roman period (“Architecture in the Ancient World”). The theatre underwent significant modifications in the later 2nd century BCE when parts of the scene building were rebuilt in marble (Sear 347). During the Roman period, the lower portion of the cavea was modified to create an arena suitable for gladiatorial contests and other Roman spectacles, with the orchestra being converted into a kolymbethra (water basin) for aquatic displays (Sear 347).

Architectural Specifications

The following specifications are drawn from Frank Sear’s reference book, Roman Theatres: An Architectural Study (Oxford University Press, 2006), except where otherwise noted.

Location

• Located just north of the modern-day town of Bergama on Turkey’s northern Aegean coast
• GPS coordinates: 39.13193, 27.18375
• Orientation: The theatre faces west, offering spectators views across the lower city and the Caicus valley beyond (Sear 346).
• Topographical details: Built on the steep western slope of the acropolis hill, with an impressive 46-meter vertical rise from the orchestra level to the floor level of the Temple of Athena at the top (Sear 346)(UNESCO).

Cavea (seating area)

• Diameter and estimated capacity: Approximately 80 meters in diameter with a capacity of approximately 10,000 spectators (Schäfer, as cited in Sear 346).
• Seating divisions:
  • Ima cavea (lower section): 21 rows of seats arranged in 7 cunei (wedge-shaped sections)
  • Media cavea (middle section): 32 rows arranged in 6 cunei, separated from the ima cavea by a praecinctio (horizontal walkway)
  • Summa cavea (upper section): 25 rows arranged in 6 irregular cunei, separated from the media cavea by another praecinctio
• Construction materials and techniques: The seats were made of stone with dimensions of 0.35 x 0.75 meters including moulded rims (Sear 346).
• Support structures and access: Built directly against the extremely steep slope of the acropolis hill, requiring minimal artificial substructures. The theatre features neatly made staircases with a width of 74 cm to facilitate audience movement (“Architecture in the Ancient World”).
• Special features: The theatre is notable for its extreme steepness, with an angle of approximately 70 degrees, making it the steepest theatre in the ancient world (“Architecture in the Ancient World”). From the top row to the stage, there are 80 steps with a total height of 36 meters (“Architecture in the Ancient World”).

Cavea (seating area)

• Diameter and estimated capacity: Approximately 80 meters in diameter with a capacity of approximately 10,000 spectators (Schäfer, as cited in Sear 346).
• Seating divisions:
  • Ima cavea (lower section): 21 rows of seats arranged in 7 cunei (wedge-shaped sections)
  • Media cavea (middle section): 32 rows arranged in 6 cunei, separated from the ima cavea by a praecinctio (horizontal walkway)
  • Summa cavea (upper section): 25 rows arranged in 6 irregular cunei, separated from the media cavea by another praecinctio
• Construction materials and techniques: The seats were made of stone with dimensions of 0.35 x 0.75 meters including moulded rims (Sear 346).
• Support structures and access: Built directly against the extremely steep slope of the acropolis hill, requiring minimal artificial substructures.

Orchestra (performance space between audience and stage)

• Dimensions, shape, and materials: 21 meters in diameter (Sear 346). Originally semicircular
• Special features and modifications: In the Roman period, the lowest three rows of seats were removed, and the orchestra was converted into an arena surrounded by a semicircular wall 1.20 meters high (Sear 346).

Pulpitum (stage)

• Dimensions and construction details: The original stage was wooden, supported by post-holes at the edge of the orchestra (Sear 347). In Roman times, a massive proscaenium wall was constructed.
• Stage machinery: The wooden structure was designed to be dismantled and reassembled as needed. In the Hellenistic Age, the stage consisted of a wooden platform and stage building that could be easily disassembled and removed when not in use (“Architecture in the Ancient World”).
• Connection to orchestra: Post holes remain as evidence that plays were performed on a portable wooden stage. Three rows of quadrangular holes remain in the floor of the theatre terrace that once held the wooden support beams. The 64 holes were cut in groups that allowed for different stage arrangements (Dörpfeld 215-31).

Scaenae Frons (decorative scene house front)

• Architectural order and design: Due to the terraced nature of the site, Pergamum’s theatre lacked a permanent scaenae frons. The earliest scene building was wooden, supported on three rows of post-holes (Sear 347). The closest row to the orchestra (depth 0.65 m) supported the stage, while the other two rows (depth 0.98 m) supported the temporary scene building (Dörpfeld, as cited in Sear 347).
• Doorways and stories: Doorways were incorporated into the wooden structure leading to the parodoi (side entrances).
• Decorative elements: An inscription on the architrave records that the grammateus (secretary) Apollodorus dedicated a portal and curtain (empeasma) to Dionysus and the people (Sear 347). The entablature over the doorway from the stage into the parodoi features a frieze adorned with comic masks and garlands (Sear 347).

Access and Circulation

• Entrances, exits, and vomitoria: The analemmata (retaining walls) did not converge but followed the line of the terraced portico in front of the Temple of Dionysus (Sear 346).
• Stairways and special areas: A unique feature added in the Roman period was a pulvinar (special seating box) measuring 5 x 9.87 meters, built at the bottom of the middle cuneus of the ima cavea, taking up 5 rows of seats (Sear 346), comparable to similar features at Priene and Hierapolis. In the lower row of the lowest section, in the middle area facing the orchestra, there is a royal lodge made of marble (“Architecture in the Ancient World”).

Current Status

The theatre at Pergamum is remarkably well-preserved, with the cavea remaining largely intact and evidence of the post-holes for the scene building still visible (Sear 347). With 78 rows of seats and a height of 36 meters, it is recognized as the steepest of all ancient theatres. The structure’s integration into the natural topography has contributed to its longevity, and its dramatic setting continues to impress visitors.

Conservation Efforts

Conservation of the theatre is now coordinated as part of the broader management of Pergamum’s archaeological heritage. The Bergama Municipality World Heritage Management Office, established in 2011, coordinates management of the site along with “Advisory” and “Coordination and Supervision” bodies responsible for implementing the management plan (UNESCO). The conservation approach emphasizes minimal intervention to preserve the authentic character of the monument while ensuring its stability for future generations.

UNESCO Status

In 2014, “Pergamon and its Multi-Layered Cultural Landscape” was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, recognizing the outstanding universal value of the acropolis and its monuments, including the theatre. The designation acknowledges how the “monumental temples, theatres, stoa or porticoes, gymnasium, altar and library were set into the sloping terrain surrounded by an extensive city wall” (UNESCO). Pergamon meets multiple UNESCO criteria, including representing “a masterpiece of Hellenistic and Roman urban planning and design” where the acropolis “remained as Pergamon’s crown while the city developed on the lower slopes during the Byzantine and Ottoman periods” (UNESCO). The theatre is specifically noted as an outstanding example within “the acropolis of Pergamon, with its urban planning and architectural remains” that together represent “an outstanding ensemble of the Hellenistic Period” (UNESCO). This designation ensures additional protection and international cooperation in preserving this remarkable cultural heritage.

Ancient Renovations

• Late 3rd century BCE: Initial construction of the theatre with wooden stage elements
• Later 2nd century BCE: Parts of the scene building rebuilt in marble (Sear 347)
• Roman period (1st-2nd century CE): Significant modifications including:
  • Creation of an arena by removing the three lowest rows of seats
  • Construction of a 1.20-meter high wall around the orchestra
  • Installation of the pulvinar (special seating box)
  • Conversion of the arena into a kolymbethra for water spectacles (Sear 347)

Modern Restorations

The theatre at Pergamum has been well-preserved through the centuries and has not required extensive reconstruction. Modern conservation efforts have focused on:

• Stabilization of the existing stone seating
• Documentation of the post-holes and other archaeological features
• Preservation of the spectacular viewshed that forms an integral part of the theatre experience

Archaeological Research: Major Excavation Campaigns

• 1878-1886: Initial excavations led by Carl Humann, Alexander Conze, and R. Bohn. The Ottomans granted permission to excavate in 1877 after Humann discovered a fragment of the Pergamon frieze (Radt 287).
• 1900-1911: Excavations directed by Wilhelm Dörpfeld, who identified the post-holes for the wooden scene building and was responsible for numerous important discoveries (Sear 347).
• 1957-1968: Work by Erich Boehringer, particularly on the Asklepieion and the lower city, including extensive survey work of the surrounding countryside (Boehringer 150-157).
• 1971-2006: Excavations led by Wolfgang Radt, focusing on residential buildings and technical aspects including the city’s sophisticated water management system (Radt 257-262).
• 2006-present: Work directed by Felix Pirson with continuing focus on the integration of the site into its broader cultural landscape (Pirson).

Publication History

The theatre at Pergamum has been extensively documented in numerous scholarly publications, with some of the most significant contributions including:

• R. Bohn, “Die Theater-Terrasse” (Altertümer von Pergamon, 4; Berlin, 1896)
• W. Dörpfeld, “Gr. Theater, 150–3” (1907)
• E. Boehringer, “Neue deutsche Ausgrabungen im Mittel- meergebiete und im Vorderen Orient” (Berlin, 1959)
• Ferrero, “Teatri, 3. 23–34”
• W. Radt, “Pergamon” (1988, 1999)
• Frank Sear, “Roman Theatres: An Architectural Study” (Oxford, 2006)
• The Pergamon Museum in Berlin houses archives and artifacts collected before 1936, including the altar of Zeus and Athena. In 1936 Atatürk built the Bergama Museum, which holds all artifacts collected since. 

Bibliography / Resources:

“Architecture in the Ancient World – The Pergamon Ancient Theater and The Kazarma Bridge.” DIAZOMA, 31 Mar. 2022, diazoma.gr/en/network-of-ancient-theatres/architecture-in-the-ancient-world-the-pergamon-ancient-theater-and-the-kazarma-bridge/31/03/2022.

Boehringer, Erich. Neue deutsche Ausgrabungen im Mittelmeergebiete und im Vorderen Orient. Berlin, 1959.

Bohn, Richard. Die Theater-Terrasse. Altertümer von Pergamon, vol. 4, Berlin, 1896.

Dörpfeld, Wilhelm. “Pergamon.” Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Athenische Abteilung, vol. 32, 1907, pp. 215-31.

Fabricius, Ernst, and Carl Schuchhardt. Die Inschriften von Pergamon. Altertümer von Pergamon, vol. 8, no. 1, Berlin, 1890.

Ferrero, Daria De Bernardi. Teatri classici in Asia Minore. vol. 3, L’Erma di Bretschneider, Rome, 1970, pp. 23-34.

Pirson, Felix. “Annual Reports on Excavations at Pergamon.” Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, 2006-2024.

Radt, Wolfgang. Pergamon: Geschichte und Bauten einer antiken Metropole. Primus Verlag, Darmstadt, 1999.

Schäfer, Jörg. “Pergamon.” Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, edited by Richard Stillwell, Princeton University Press, 1976, p. 690.

Sear, Frank. Roman Theatres: An Architectural Study. Oxford University Press, 2006.

UNESCO. “Pergamon and its Multi-Layered Cultural Landscape.” World Heritage List, UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2014, whc.unesco.org/en/list/1457/.

von Gerkan, Armin. “Pergamon.” Pergamon gesammelte Aufsätze, edited by Erich Boehringer, Pergamenische Forschungen, vol. 1, Berlin, 1972, pp. 49-63.