Pompey Theatre (modern Rome, Italy)

55 BCE

Cavea Width: 153 meters
Orchestra Width: 44 meters

Summary: The Theatre of Pompey; Rome, Italy; 158m wide cavea; three rows of seats (ima, media, and summa cavea) divided by social rank; facing south; approximately 25,000 spectators (though Pliny claimed 40,000); 44m orchestra diameter; constructed 55-52 BCE. The theatre exists only as archaeological remains incorporated into later buildings, primarily the Palazzo Pio and surrounding structures in the Campo dei Fiori area. The curved outline of these modern buildings preserves the shape of the original cavea. Limited accessible remains include subterranean chambers under Ristorante Da Pancrazio. (Gagliardo and Packer 93-113)

The Theatre of Pompey (theatrum Pompei), Rome

Now, if you want BIG, you can’t do better than Pompey’s theatre. It was the first permanent theatre built in the city of Rome; it was as wide as the Colosseum, and its stage was longer than an American football field. It seated 40,000 people, and Cicero wrote, ” … the opening theatre performance was accompanied by athletes, gladiatorial combat and animal hunts, “… “six hundred lions (three hundred and fifteen with manes), four hundred and ten leopards and panthers, and eighteen elephants.”— and, for the first time on any stage, an Indian rhinoceros!” Pompey built the theatre as a tribute to himself and to secure his status as a Roman Consul and future dictator. He was assassinated 7 years after the theatre opened. 

Introduction

In 55 BCE, Pompey the Great inaugurated the city of Rome’s first permanent theatre, a revolutionary structure located in the Campus Martius area (41.894° N, 12.47832° E). This magnificent complex was the largest theatre ever imagined in Rome. It’s construction was bold, politically calculated, and technically illegal—Roman law expressly prohibited permanent theatres within Rome’s city limits. Its revolutionary design would influence all future theatre constructions while embodying the essence of Roman ambition. The complex extended far beyond just a performance space, encompassing a portico with gardens (porticus post scaenam), a temple dedicated to Venus Victrix crowning the cavea, and the Curia Pompeia—a senate meeting hall large enough to accommodate 600 senators.

Predating iconic structures like the Pantheon and Colosseum, Pompey’s theatre hosted its inaugural performance during the waning days of the Roman Republic and remained an active venue throughout the entire span of the Roman Empire. It stood as Rome’s largest structure until the Colosseum’s completion, yet surpassed even this famous amphitheatre when including its extensive complex of shaded porticos, temples, and statues. Over a millennium, it endured fires, earthquakes, countless renovations, and systematic plundering before gradually dissolving into Rome’s evolving urban landscape.

Today, 2,100 years after its construction, the theatre’s physical presence has largely vanished, yet its footprint remains preserved in the curved outline of buildings surrounding Campo dei Fiori and Largo del Biscione. This architectural ghost is particularly visible in the curved façade of the Palazzo Pio. Visitors to modern Rome’s Campo de Fiori will discover a vibrant market square with no obvious traces of the magnificent theatre, but the observant traveler can still find fragments of Pompey’s legacy: a restaurant cellar at Da Pancrazio reveals what appears to be an ancient theatre passageway; the Renaissance-era Palazzo della Cancelleria features travertine marble cladding and columned architecture reminiscent of the theatre’s design.

Perhaps most poignantly, tourists photographing cats at Largo di Torre Argentina are unknowingly capturing the very location where Brutus assassinated Julius Caesar. For those hoping to witness the grandeur of a complete Roman theatre ruin, you’ve arrived a millennium too late—but its imprint on Rome’s urban fabric and architectural history remains indelible.

History

The Theatre of Pompey was dedicated in 55 BCE during Pompey the Great’s second consulship, with the Temple of Venus Victrix consecrated in his third consulship (52 BCE) (Gagliardo and Packer 93). According to Plutarch, Pompey conceived the idea for the theatre in 63 BCE while visiting Mytilene, where he was impressed by the local theatre and commissioned plans for a larger, more splendid version in Rome (Gagliardo and Packer 93). The theatre was strategically built outside the pomerium (the sacred boundary of Rome) to circumvent traditional restrictions against permanent theatre structures within the city limits (Phillips 210).

The theatre served multiple functions beyond theatrical performances. The colonnaded portico behind the stage provided shelter and displayed rare works of art, while the adjoining gardens served as a public park and meeting place (Gagliardo and Packer 95). The Curia Pompeia, where the Roman Senate occasionally convened, became infamous as the site of Julius Caesar’s assassination on the Ides of March (March 15) in 44 BCE. After Caesar’s murder, the people burned the Curia, and Augustus later closed what remained of it, moving Pompey’s statue to a position behind the main door of the scaenae frons (stage building) (Gagliardo and Packer 95).

Theatre Specifications

Location:

The Theatre of Pompey faced south and was situated on the flat Campus Martius, rather than being built into a hillside as was customary for earlier theatres. This innovative positioning required revolutionary engineering solutions to support the massive cavea. The theatre was positioned just outside Rome’s sacred boundary (pomerium), allowing Pompey to circumvent traditional restrictions against permanent theatres within the city (Phillips 210-211).

Cavea:

The cavea (seating area) had a diameter of approximately 158 meters, making it significantly larger than the later Theatre of Marcellus (129.80 m) (Gagliardo and Packer 113). Its innovative concrete-and-stone construction technology enabled the building to be located on flat terrain rather than being built into a hillside. The cavea was supported by a complex system of radial walls, vaults, and ramps that created a network of corridors and staircases under the seating area (Gagliardo and Packer 93-94). According to recent estimates, the cavea could accommodate approximately 25,000 spectators, though Pliny claimed it held 40,000 (a figure most scholars consider exaggerated) (Beacham and Denard 139).

The seating was likely divided into the traditional three horizontal sections: ima cavea (lower section for senators and equites), media cavea (middle section for citizens), and summa cavea (upper section for the lower classes and women). The theatre also featured a velarium (retractable awning) to shade spectators from the sun, similar to the later Colosseum (Gagliardo and Packer 95).

Orchestra:

The orchestra (performance space between the stage and seating) had a diameter of approximately 44 meters (Gagliardo and Packer 113). While detailed information about its original paving materials is limited, archaeological evidence suggests it was likely paved with marble. The orchestra maintained the traditional semicircular shape characteristic of Roman theatres, rather than the full circle found in Greek theatres.

Pulpitum/Stage:

The stage (pulpitum) of the Theatre of Pompey was approximately 300 feet (91.4 meters) wide, according to Beacham and Denard (129). This enormous width made it one of the largest stages in the ancient world. The stage was elevated above the orchestra level, though the exact height is not precisely documented in surviving records. Access to the stage was provided by ramps and doors in the scaenae frons.

Scaenae Frons:

The scaenae frons (stage building) underwent significant changes during imperial renovations, particularly after the fire of 80 CE during Domitian’s reign and again under Septimius Severus (210-212 CE) (Gagliardo and Packer 95). The Severan Marble Plan of Rome shows a scaenae frons with a large rectangular recess in the center (housing the valva regia or central door) flanked by two curved niches (containing the hospitalia or side doors) (Sear 688). 

The scaenae frons likely featured multiple stories of columns in different orders (Tuscan/Doric on the ground floor, followed by Ionic and Corinthian orders above) (Gagliardo and Packer 116). Later renovations incorporated colored marble columns, potentially including shafts of africano, cipolin, porphyry, and gray granite (Gagliardo and Packer 116).

Decoration:

The theatre was lavishly decorated with statuary and architectural ornament. A colossal bronze Hercules (the “Hercules Righetti”) was discovered in 1865 and is now housed in the Vatican Museums (Gagliardo and Packer 99). Other statuary included a colossal group of Apollo and the Muses that stood between columns of the lower order of the scaenae frons (Gagliardo and Packer 116). Some of these statues survive in various museums, including Rome’s Palazzo Borghese, the Louvre in Paris, and the Museo Nazionale in Naples.

Architectural elements included marble pavements of porta santa and cipolin, and fragments of a Corinthian half-capital (with a diameter of 0.995 m) attributed to the Temple of Venus Victrix (Gagliardo and Packer 100). Peperino blocks with engaged half-columns formed the foundation wall of the Temple, while travertine was used for the theater’s exterior façade (Gagliardo and Packer 98).

Current Status

Today, the Theatre of Pompey is not preserved as a visible monument but survives incorporated into the modern urban fabric of Rome. Its curved outline is preserved in the buildings surrounding the Campo dei Fiori, particularly visible in the Palazzo Pio (Beacham and Denard 130). Various subterranean chambers are accessible from the basement of Ristorante Da Pancrazio on Via del Biscione (Gagliardo and Packer 103).

The remaining fragments of the theatre are in varying states of preservation. Some sections are accessible to the public, while others are incorporated into private buildings or buried beneath modern structures. No comprehensive archaeological investigation has been possible due to the continuous occupation of the site since antiquity. Recent documentation and limited excavations have provided valuable new information about the theatre’s architecture and history, offering potential avenues for future research and conservation efforts (Gagliardo and Packer 117-118).

Renovations

The Theatre of Pompey underwent numerous renovations throughout its long history. Augustus was the first to restore the theatre (32 BCE), followed by Tiberius who began repairs to the scaenae frons after 21 CE (work he never completed). Caligula (37-41 CE) finished Tiberius’ project, and Claudius officially dedicated the renovated scaenae frons (Gagliardo and Packer 96).

A significant renovation occurred after a major fire in 80 CE destroyed the scaenae frons. Domitian included the theatre among the “many splendid buildings…destroyed by fire” that he restored. The most extensive documented renovation was carried out under Septimius Severus between 210-212 CE, supervised by Quintus Acilius Fuscus, who was specifically appointed as “procurator operis theatri Pompeiani.” This renovation likely included major changes to the scaenae frons and other sections of the building that had collapsed (Gagliardo and Packer 95).

Later renovations included repairs by Diocletian and Maximian (285-305 CE), work by Arcadius and Honorius after 395 CE to repair a collapsed exterior and part of the interior, and the final recorded restoration by Cassiodorus for Theodoric between 507-511 CE (Gagliardo and Packer 96).

Archaeological Excavations

By the early 12th century, the theatre had been largely converted to other uses, with two churches occupying parts of the site: the 10th/11th-century San Salvatore and the 12th-century Santa Maria in Grotta Pinta (“St. Mary in the Painted Grotto,” a reference to one of the decorated access corridors) (Gagliardo and Packer 96). By 1296, the Orsini family had incorporated parts of the structure into a fortress with a tower overlooking the modern Campo dei Fiori (Gagliardo and Packer 96-97).

The first documented archaeological discovery related to the theatre came during the pontificate of Benedict XIV (1740-1758) when a marble block inscribed “VENERIS VICTRICIS” was found during construction of the Church of Santa Maria in Grotta Pinta. By the mid-18th century, Giovanni Battista Piranesi and other topographers had identified the curved structures in the area as the remains of Pompey’s theatre (Gagliardo and Packer 98).

The first systematic study of the theatre was undertaken by Luigi Canina in the 1830s, followed by Victoire Baltard who conducted limited excavations in 1837 to verify Canina’s reconstruction. Baltard excavated in the Largo dei Librari and the Piazza dei Satiri, uncovering parts of the façade and scaenae frons, respectively (Gagliardo and Packer 98).

The most significant excavation occurred in 1865 when Pietro Righetti, then owner of the Pio Palace, discovered the colossal bronze Hercules statue (now in the Vatican Museums) while digging foundations for a new wing. This excavation also revealed parts of the Temple of Venus Victrix foundations, a street, fine marble pavement, and architectural fragments including a Corinthian half-capital (Gagliardo and Packer 98-100).

Recent archaeological work was conducted between 1996-2003 by Richard Beacham of Warwick University and James Packer, who documented accessible remains and conducted limited excavations in the Palazzo Pio (Gagliardo and Packer 101). Their 2002 excavation cleared modern debris from a previously unknown subterranean chamber that was part of the ambulacrum. In 2003, foundation trenches for elevators in the southeast court of the palace revealed 12th-15th century pottery, part of a vault from a radial corridor, and a fragment of a frescoed wall, possibly dating to the Domitianic restoration (Gagliardo and Packer 109-112).

Bibliography / Resources:

Beacham, Richard, and Hugh Denard. “The Pompey Project: Digital Research and Virtual Reconstruction of Rome’s First Theatre.” Computers and the Humanities, vol. 37, no. 1, 2003, pp. 129-139.

Gagliardo, Maria C., and James E. Packer. “A New Look at Pompey’s Theater: History, Documentation, and Recent Excavation.” American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 110, no. 1, 2006, pp. 93-122.

Phillips, Darryl A. “Tertullian on the Opening of Pompey’s Theater in Rome.” Syllecta Classica, vol. 12, 2001, pp. 208-219.

Richardson, Lawrence. “A Note on the Architecture of the Theatrum Pompei in Rome.” American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 91, no. 1, 1987, pp. 123-126.

Sear, Frank B. “The Scaenae Frons of the Theater of Pompey.” American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 97, no. 4, 1993, pp. 687-701.

Sear, Frank. Roman Theatres: An Architectural Study. Oxford University Press, 2006.

Taylor, Rabun. Roman Builders: A Study in Architectural Process. Cambridge University Press, 2003.

Welch, Katherine. “The Origins of the Roman Theater.” American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 101, no. 1, 1997, pp. 7-16.