Syracusae (modern Siracuse, Sicily, Italy)

481 BCE Greek rectilinear theatre (no remains);  238-215 BCE Hellenistic theatre with 2nd century CE Roman renovations (existing remains).

Cavea Width: 139 meters
Orchestra Width: 21 meters

Syracusae (modern Siracusa, Italy). 5th century CE rectilinear theatre replaced by 3rd century (238–215 BCE) Hellenistic theatre. Roman stage building was added in the 2nd century CE, and a kolymbethra (orchestra adapted for water spectacles) was added in the 5th century CE (Sear 191). The theatre ruins we see today are of a Hellenistic theatre with Roman alterations: cavea: width: 138.50 m; ima cavea: 27 rows in 9 cunei; summa cavea: 40 rows in 9 cunei: orchestra: 21.4 m. W; scene building: destroyed but foundations remain; seating capacity: 15,000; date of Hellenistic theatre: ca. 238-215 BCE.

Syracusae (modern Siracusa, Italy).
Author: T. Hines 2024.

Ancient Syracusae (modern Siracusa) is a city on the east coast of Sicily, 33 miles (53 km) south of Catania. Syracusae was settled about 734 BCE as a Corinthian colony established by the aristocrat Archias, and the city soon dominated the coastal plain and hill country beyond. Described by Cicero as “the greatest Greek city and the most beautiful of them all,” it equaled Athens in size during the fifth century bc (Britannica). It later became part of the Roman Republic and the Byzantine Empire. Under Emperor Constans II, it served as the capital of the Byzantine Empire (663–669). After this, Palermo overtook it in importance as the capital of the Kingdom of Sicily. Eventually, the kingdom would be united with the Kingdom of Naples to form the Two Sicilies until the Italian unification of 1860.

Siracusa is home to both the oldest and the largest theatre in Sicily. It is fair to say, however, that they are not necessarily the same. The earliest theatre in Ancient Syracusae was not the enormous 15,000-seat theatre we see today. That distinction goes to a simpler, rectilinear theatre that probably seated 1,000 spectators or less.

The Rectilinear Theatre, 5th Century BCE: “At Syracusae in Sicily, a theatre was erected by the architect Damocopus for Hieron I (478-467 BCE), apparently with a trapezoidal orchestra, and it is here that Aeschylus produced a play in 476 B.C.; but the present theatre is Hellenistic” (Dinsmoor 210).

The exact location of this early 5th-century BCE theatre is suspect, but it is fair to say that it, as well as its successor, were both built on the south slope of Temenite Hill, overlooking the modern city of Syracuse. “There are remains of two distinct but adjacent theatrical structures on the Temenites hill. On the southwest slope is the set of some seventeen rows of rock-carved seats, around 27.5 m in length and divided by two staircases, of late sixth- or fifth-century date (no stratigraphic study was ever undertaken to narrow the range). This lies some 24 m to the southwest of a small quadrangular sanctuary (excavated by Stucchi), at the south-western corner of the retaining wall of the later, great theatre” (Csapo and Wilson 298).

The Great Theatre, 2nd Century BCE to 5th Century CE: The great theatre at Syracuse was constructed between 238 and 215 BCE and was twice restored in the Hellenistic period. A new Roman stage building was added in the 2nd century CE, and a kolymbethra (orchestra adapted for water spectacles) was added in the 5th century CE (Sear 191). The theatre we see today is the weathered result of a Hellenistic theatre with Roman alterations.

Cavea (Seating Area): The remains are cut into the living rock on the southern slope of Temenite Hill, facing south with a view of the port’s bay and the island of Ortygia. The original Hellenistic cavea most likely exceeded a semicircle to accommodate the Greek, horseshoe-shaped orchestra. The semi-circular cavea we see today is the result of Roman remodeling. The theatre is huge. With a cavea (seating area) that measures 138 meters wide, it is, without doubt, the largest theatre in Sicily and one of the largest in the Greek World.

The theatre seated approximately 15,000 spectators in two seating sections: the ima cavea (lower section) and the summa cavea (upper section). These two seating sections are separated by a 2.25-meter-wide, curved praecinctio (walkway) surrounded by a podium wall (H 1.42 m). The ima cavea contains 27 rows (0.33 x 0.80 m), divided into 9 cunei (wedge-shaped seating sections). The summa cavea contains an additional 40 rows of seats subdivided into 9 cunei, accessed by rock-cut staircases at the ends of the praecinctio (Sear 191). Eight stairways allow audience access to the upper rows of seating in both ima and summa cavea sections. The combined seating entails 67 rows of seats.

Names in large letters appear on the podium wall surrounding the praecinctio: the central cuneus bears “Zeus Olympius,” the fourth cuneus “Hieron II,” the third “his wife Phylistis,” the second “Queen Nereis,” and the first “?Gelon II” (Sear 191).

A terrace above and behind the theatre has been carved into the rock and is accessed by a central stairway and by a recessed path, “Via dei Sepolcri” (Street of Tombs). A grotto, the “grotto del Ninfeo,” and niches for housing statues were carved into the hill behind the terrace.

Orchestra (Performance space between the audience and stage): The 3rd-century Hellenistic orchestra was 16 meters in diameter, horseshoe-shaped, and bounded by an open euripus (drainage channel). A walking space between the euripus and the first row of seating allowed audience members to access the stairways leading to the upper cavea.

A 0.9-meter-wide and 1.75-meter-high rock-cut passageway from the third Hellenistic period ran from the back of the scene building to the middle of the orchestra. Sear speculates that this may have been Charonian steps (an underground passage ending in a staircase used for entrances and exits) (191).

During the Roman occupation in the 2nd century CE, the analemmata (cavea retaining walls) were cut back at both sides of the cavea, and a pair of aditus maximi (large side entrances to the orchestra) were added. Additional 2nd-century renovations included re-cutting the lowest 12 rows of seats at a steeper angle and extending the orchestra to 21.4 meters wide. The original orchestra drainage channel was covered over, and a new 0.34-meter-wide channel was cut closer to the first row of seats. In addition to the widening of the orchestra, a protective barrier was built in front of the first row of seats, presumably allowing for gladiatorial games. In the 5th century CE, a trapezoidal kolymbethra (water pool) was cut into the orchestra, allowing for water performances (Sear 191).

Skênê (stage building), pulpitum (stage) and proskênion (architectural elements in front of the stage building): The scene building at Syracuse no longer exists, but the foundations remain. Interpreting these remains has proven challenging due to the complex history of constructions spanning from the 3rd century BCE to the 5th century CE. Sear writes that “foundation cuttings indicate 3 successive stages in Hellenistic times; in the Roman period, a stage 1.40 meters high advanced into the orchestra and ends contiguous with the analemmata, and the old Hellenistic parodoi (uncovered side entrance to the orchestra) became covered passageways leading to sides of stage” (191). He further notes that an aulaeum (curtain) slot measuring 32 meters long, 0.80 meters wide, and 0.70 meters deep was cut into the stage, along with 12 holes (0.33 x 0.35 m) for posts that supported the curtain (in Roman theatre, curtains were raised from below the stage). In the 5th century CE, a new aulaeum trench was cut some meters behind the older one.

Little is known about the Hellenistic skênê (stage building), but if it conformed to other Greek designs it would have been a two-story building. Doors in the lower story would access the orchestra and upper story doors would access a covered, three-meter high stage. Two paraskênion (projecting side additions to the skênê) would have flanked this Hellenistic stage.

In 21 BCE, Augustus established Syracusae as a colony of Rome, and multiple constructions followed, including an amphitheatre, a triumphal arch, and an aqueduct. Roman alterations to the theatre were most likely initiated at this time, and over the following 400 years, the Hellenistic skene was replaced by an ornately decorated, multi-storied Roman scaenae frons (front wall to the stage building) and a lower, 1.4-meter-high stage that backed a semi-circular, Roman orchestra. The Greek parodoi were converted into covered entrances to the Roman stage, and the theatre was adapted for gladiatorial games. By the 5th century CE, a kolymbethra (a pool for water spectacles) was incorporated into the orchestra.

An inscription from the 5th century CE (CIL 10.7124) records that Neratius Palmatus restored the scene. If this was the same person who restored the Curia at Rome after the Sack of Rome by Alaric in 410, then the final works on the theatre at Syracusae can be dated to the beginning of the fifth century ad, by which time the building was nearly nine hundred years old (“Greek Theatre of Syracuse”).

Following Rome’s demise in 476 CE, the theatre remained abandoned for centuries, and a series of decimations occurred. Under Charles V (16th century), the scene building and the upper portions of the cavea were repurposed for constructing fortifications on Ortygia. During the second half of the 16th century, the Marchesa of Sortino, Pietro Gaetani, installed several water mills in the cavea, powered by the Roman aqueduct that once supplied water for the kolymbethra. The remains of one of these mills, known as the casetta dei mugnai (Millers’ Cottage), can be found behind the cavea.

Current Status: In 1914, the Istituto Nazionale del Dramma Antico (INDA) initiated the annual performance of Greek drama in the ancient theatre, a tradition that continues to this day. The ancient Greek tragedies are performed at sunset, in Italian, without sound systems, due to the quality of the theatre’s acoustics. Each theatre season begins in May and ends in July.

Renovations: 

Archaic Theatre (5th century BCE): Early theatrical activity documented by Sophron, who names architect Damokopos “Myrilla.” Aeschylus likely performed Aetnae (476 BCE) and Persae (472 BCE) here.

Hellenistic Reconstruction (238-215 BCE)
Hieron II’s architects created the monumental theatre visible today, establishing it as Sicily’s largest with its 138.50 m diameter.

Roman Modifications (2nd-5th centuries CE)

• Stone stage building construction
• Orchestra enlargement and gladiatorial adaptations
• Addition of stage curtain mechanisms
• Final renovation by Neratius Palmatus (c.410 CE)

Medieval Abandonment
Following Roman decline (476 CE), the theatre lay abandoned for nearly a millennium.

Spanish Destruction (16th century)
Charles V’s forces systematically dismantled the scene building and upper cavea for Ortygia fortification stones.

Water Mills Period (16th-18th centuries)
Pietro Gaetani installed mills powered by the ancient aqueduct; remnants of the “casetta dei mugnai” (millers’ cottage) survive.

Foundation (1914)
The Istituto Nazionale del Dramma Antico stages Aeschylus’ Agamemnon as the first modern classical performance, interrupted only by world wars.

Institutional Development
Mussolini’s 1924 visit to productions of Seven against Thebes and Antigone leads to formal state support. INDA becomes a foundation in 1998.

Contemporary Status
Over 110 years later, INDA continues annual classical seasons, training new generations through its Academy of Art of Ancient Drama.

Excavations:

• 1839: Duke of Serradifalco (Domenico Lo Faso Pietrasanta) conducts first systematic excavations
• Mid-1800s: Saverio Landolina and Francesco Saverio Cavallari clear accumulated debris
• 1895-1934: Paolo Orsi directs comprehensive archaeological campaigns
• 1988: Giuseppe Voza completes final major excavations

Bibliography / Resources:

Cartwright, Mark. “Syracusae.” Ancient History Encyclopedia, 28 Apr. 2011, www.ancient.eu/Syracusae/.

Csapo, Eric, and Peter Wilson. A Social and Economic History of the Theatre to 300 BC: Volume 2, Theatre beyond Athens. Cambridge University Press, 2020.

Dinsmoor, William James Anderson. The Architecture of Ancient Greece: An Account of Its Historic Development. BT Batsford LTD, 1950.

“Greek Theatre of Syracuse.” Wikipedia, 16 Jan. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Theatre_of_Syracuse.

Sear, Frank. Roman Theatres: An Architectural Study. Oxford University Press, 2006.

“Siracusa Arts Festival 2023.” Art in the Mediterranean, siracusa-artsfestival.com/. Accessed 2 Feb. 2024.

“Syracuse.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 1 Nov. 2019, www.britannica.com/place/Syracusae-Italy.