Termessus (modern Güllük Dağı)

Early 2nd century BCE

Cavea Width: 66 meters
Orchestra Width: 26 meters

The Theatre at Termessus; Güllük, Turkey (ancient Termessus, Pisidia); Hellenistic-Roman theatre; 65.5 meters cavea diameter; 27 total rows divided into ima cavea (19 rows in 5 cunei) and summa cavea (8 rows in 10 cunei); facing east-south-east; 3,900-4,850 spectators capacity; 30 meters orchestra diameter; initial construction early 2nd century BCE with major renovations during Augustan period, late 2nd century CE, and mid-4th century CE; remarkably well-preserved condition with most original seating intact, scene building surviving primarily at foundation level with back wall as most substantial standing remains, ongoing vegetation management challenges, protected within Termessus National Park since 1970, remote mountain location providing natural protection from development pressures while creating maintenance access difficulties.

Roman theatre at Termessus (modern Güllük Dağı, Turkey)
Thomas G. Hines, April 28, 2024

“Difficult to visit, but beautiful – tremendously beautiful. Imagine a lost city high in the mountains, where cool breezes, the scent of pine and juniper forests, and spectacular views of the valley below. And if you search long enough, you will find the most spectacularly positioned and well-preserved theatre I have come across in all my travels.” (T. Hines Journal, June 16, 2003)

Location: Strategically situated to protect a narrow pass through the Taurus Mountains, the ancient city of Termessus was sited over 1,000 meters up the slope of Mount Güllük Dağı in Turkey. According to Strabo, the inhabitants of Termessus called themselves the Solymi and were a Pisidian people (Strabo, XIII, 630). Although it is only 20 kilometers to the northwest of Antalya, the inhospitable nature of the mountainous terrain made the naturally fortified city inaccessible to neighbors and impregnable to invaders. Today, the unadulterated Hellenistic ruins, the vistas, and the isolated tranquility of its lofty location make it one of the most beautifully sited ancient cities in Turkey. It may also be the most difficult to visit.

History: Although the ruins today are mostly Roman, the Pisidian city of Termessus predates the Trojan War. Homer references the natural defenses of the city in the Iliad and describes how the king of Lycia commissioned the Greek hero, Bellerophon, and his winged horse Pegasus to conquer the otherwise impregnable city by attacking it from the air (Homer  II, VI, 184). The Greek historian Arrian chronicles the strategic importance of Termessus and describes Alexander the Great’s decision to bypass the city in 333 BCE rather than taking the time and effort to assail the lofty stronghold, which he referred to as an “eagle’s nest.” (Arrianus, I, 27).

A warlike city, Termessus maintained its independence even under the dominion of the Persians. Under the successor of Alexander, Termessus preserved its autonomy and, in 189 B.C., allied with the Roman consul, Cn. Manlius. The city was granted independent status by the Roman Senate in 71 BCE. 

A massive earthquake in the 4th century CE severely damaged the city and destroyed its aqueduct. The city was abandoned by the 5th century. The rugged terrain that protected the Termessus so successfully during its inhabited phase continued to protect the uninhabited remains throughout the centuries that followed. Accordingly, the earthquake-ravaged ruins we see today are relatively pristine (translated: not stolen, repurposed, or reassembled).

Architectural Design: The Roman theatre at Termessus was built in the Hellenistic style and dates back to the early 2nd century BCE. The east-southeast-facing cavea is embedded in the slope of Mt. Solymos and enjoys a commanding view over the Pamphylian plain. It is located east of the Termessus agora, and a small odeum or bouleuterion lies 100 meters to the southwest. A large arched entranceway connects the theatre’s cavea with the agora.

The cavea was extended in the late 2nd century CE, with repairs to the porticus (a covered, colonnaded walkway) made in the mid-4th century CE. The theatre, as well as the city of Termessus, was abandoned during the 5th century following an earthquake.

Cavea (seating area)

• Diameter: 65.5 meters (Sear 378)
• Estimated capacity: 3,900-4,850 spectators (Sear calculation)
• Seating divisions:
  • Ima cavea (lower seating): 19 rows (0.42-0.43 × 0.75 m) in 5 cunei (wedge-shaped sections)
  • The top row features a continuous stone back-rest with dolphin-shaped arm-rests (Sear 378)
  • Praecinctio (horizontal walkway) with podium wall (H 1.88 m)
  • Summa cavea (upper seating): 8 rows in 10 cunei
• Construction materials: Local limestone with rough finish for economy (Sear 378)
• Substructures: Built against natural slope; surrounded by heavy wall with uneven courses

Orchestra (performance space)

• Dimensions: Diameter approximately 30 meters (Sear 378)
• Shape: Horseshoe-shaped
• Materials: Stone construction
• Special features: Later modifications for arena use

Pulpitum (stage)

• Dimensions: Length 29 meters, width 5.40 meters (Sear 378)
• Construction details: Rectilinear front with oblique sides; stone paving
• Special features: Three doorways in rectilinear section flanked by square panels containing circular clipei (shield decorations); additional doorway in each oblique side (Sear 378)

Scaenae Frons (decorative scene house front)

• Architectural order: Multiple building phases with varying orders
• Doorways and stories: Rectilinear scaenae frons with 5 doorways decreasing in size toward sides (Sear 378)
• Decorative elements: Podia supporting columnatio (colonnade); evidence of rich decoration in later phases

Date: The initial theatre construction at Termessus was early in the 2nd century BCE. The first major renovation (an arched entrance built through the middle of the summa cavea) was completed during the reign of Caesar Augustus (c. 62 BCE – 14 CE). In circa 180 CE, the south side of the cavea was extended. In circa 350 CE, a roofed gallery with barrel vaults was added. The city was abandoned in the 5th century CE following a massive earthquake. (Architectural specifications from Frank Sear, Roman Theatres: An Architectural Study. pp. 178-179).

The city of Termessus was abandoned in the 5th century CE following a massive earthquake. Due to their inhospitable location, the ruins were all but forgotten until the first half of the 19th century, when the European explorers Thomas Abel Brimage Spratt and Edward Forbes visited and described their findings in their book Travels in Lycia, published in 1847. Shortly thereafter, archaeologist Charles Fellows explored the city and produced the first building descriptions and initial plans for the ancient city. In the 1880s, the Polish researcher Karol Lanckoroński repeatedly visited Termessus and produced carefully drafted plans of the city’s layout. In his book, The Cities of Pamphylia and Pisidia. Lanckoroński wrote about Termessos in the following words: ‘Of all the cities of Pisidia which we have visited, Termessos has the most peculiar and the greatest position: it is, at the same time, a watchtower commanding a distant view and nest buried deeply in a valley, surrounded by a ring of mountains. If its inhabitants indulged in brigandage, they could not find a better hiding place than in this eagle’s nest. Following the 19th-century explorations, only surface surveys of the ruins have been conducted. ‘(Miszczak)

Preservation Condition

The theatre at Termessus remains in remarkably good condition, considering its age and exposed mountain location. The cavea retains much of its original seating, though vegetation growth poses ongoing challenges (Bean 119). The scene building survives primarily at the foundation level, with the back wall representing the most substantial standing remains of the stage structure.

Ancient Renovation History

Phase I: Early 2nd century BCE: Initial Hellenistic construction established the basic theatrical form with simple masonry techniques appropriate to the mountainous setting (Sear 378).

Phase II: Augustan period (late 1st century BCE – early 1st century CE): Major renovations included construction of the broad central staircase system to improve circulation to upper seating areas (Sear 378). The challenging topography necessitated innovative access solutions as the hillside only reached summa cavea level in the center.

Phase III: Late 2nd century CE: Extensive modifications to the south side of the cavea, including construction of three sections of barrel-vaulting forming an aditus maximus (main entrance). This addition provided 8 additional rows in the summa cavea and 4 more rows at the top of the ima cavea, with three rectangular windows in the new outer wall (Sear 378).

Phase IV: Mid-4th century CE: Final major renovations included rebuilding of the porticus (colonnade) around the top of the cavea with radial barrel-vaults, demonstrating continued use into late antiquity (Sear 378).

Major Excavation Campaigns

The theatre at Termessus has received relatively limited systematic archaeological investigation compared to other major ancient theatres in Turkey. Early documentation was provided by Charles Texier in the 1830s and later by Austrian scholars (Lanckoronski 98-99).

1885-1886: Austrian Archaeological Institute conducted initial surveys under Otto Benndorf, providing the first systematic architectural documentation (Lanckoronski 43).

1950s-1960s: Limited excavation work focused primarily on clearing vegetation and stabilizing visible structures rather than comprehensive archaeological investigation (Bean 119-137).

1970s-Present: Turkish archaeological teams under the Ministry of Culture and Tourism have conducted ongoing conservation work and limited excavations, primarily focused on preservation rather than new discovery (Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism 23-45).

Publication History

The primary scholarly documentation includes Otto Benndorf’s early surveys published in Reisen in Lykien und Karien (1884), followed by Karl Lanckoronski’s comprehensive architectural study in Städte Pamphyliens und Pisidiens (1890-1892). More recent analysis appears in Ferrero’s Teatri classici in Asia Minore (1966-1970) and Frank Sear’s Roman Theatres (2006) (Ferrero 2:9-34).

Bibliography / Resources:

Aristodimou Georgia , “Termessus (Antiquity), Theatre”, Encyclopaedia of the Hellenic World, Asia Minor URL: <http://www.ehw.gr/l.aspx?id=9264>

Bean, George E. Southern Turkey. London: Ernest Benn, 1968.

Ferrero, Daria De Bernardi. Teatri classici in Asia Minore. 4 vols. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider, 1966-1970.

Lanckoronski, Karl Graf. Städte Pamphyliens und Pisidiens. 2 vols. Vienna: F. Tempsky, 1890-1892.

Mitchell, Stephen. Cremna in Pisidia: An Ancient City in Peace and War. London: Duckworth, 1995.

Sear, Frank. Roman Theatres: An Architectural Study. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Spratt, Thomas Abel Brimage. Travels and Researches in Crete. 2 vols. London: John Van Voorst, 1865.

Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism. “Termessus National Park Management Plan.” Ankara: General Directorate of Cultural Heritage and Museums, 2018.

Wörrle, Michael. Stadt und Fest im kaiserzeitlichen Kleinasien. Munich: C.H. Beck, 1988.